Paper no - 12 English Language Teaching

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                                       Name: Mital M. Raval      

                                               Roll No: 19

                                             M.A. SEM: 3

                                      Batch Year: 2016 – 2018

                             Enrollment No: 2069108420170026

                            Email Id: ravalmital5292@gmail.com

                           Paper Name: English language teaching - 1

                   Assignment Topic: Second Language Acquisition.

                                     Submitted to: Dr. Dilip Barad

                                              Smt. S. b. Gardi

                                         Department of English

                                      M .k. Bhavnagar University

Introduction: 

                               

               The term “Second language Acquisition” (SLA) refers to the processes through which someone acquires one or more second or foreign languages. SLA researchers look at acquisition in naturalistic contexts and in classroom settings. Researchers are interested in both product and process. The product means the language used by learners at different stages in the acquisition process.  Trace the development of SLA from its origins in contrastive analysis. This is followed by a selective review of research, focusing on product-oriented studies of stages that learner pass through as they acquire another language, as well as investigations in to the processes underlying acquisition. The practical implications of research are then discussed, followed by a review of current and future trends and direction.

What is second Language Acquisition?

·                          Second language acquisition or SLA is the process of learning other languages in addition to the native language. For instance, a child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue starts learning English when he starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second language acquisition. In fact, a young child can learn a second language faster than an adult can learn the same language. (Singhal)

·                   Second language acquisition is learning a second language after a first language is already established. Many times this happens when a child who speaks a language other than English goes to school for the first time. Children have an easier time learning a second language, but anyone can do it at any age. It takes a lot of practice. 

Five stages of second language acquisition:

                                         

Proponents of second language acquisition theories, including Oliveri and Judie Haynes, another ESL teacher with 28 years of experience, identify five distinct stages of second language acquisition as originally espoused by linguist Stephen Krashen. These include the following:

1. Silent/receptive

This stage may last from several hours to several months, depending on the individual learner. During this time, new language learners typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice pronouncing new words. While they may engage in self-talk, they don’t normally speak the language with any fluency or real understanding.

This stage is controversial among language educators. Ana Lomba disagrees that second language learners are totally silent while they are in this first learning stage. Instead, Lomba states that “speech is fundamental in language acquisition” and learners excel in language acquisition when they apply what they learn as they learn it.

2. Early production

This stage may last about six months, during which language learners typically acquire an understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also learn to speak some words and begin forming short phrases, even though they may not be grammatically correct.

3. Speech emergence

By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up to 3,000 words, and learn to communicate by putting the words in short phrases, sentences, and questions. Again, they may not be grammatically correct, but this is an important stage during which learners gain greater comprehension and begin reading and writing in their second language.

4. Intermediate fluency

At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech emergence, learners typically have a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They usually acquire the ability to communicate in writing and speech using more complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners begin actually thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in speaking it.

5. Continued language development/advanced fluency

It takes most learners at least two years to reach this stage, and then up to 10 years to achieve full mastery of the second language in all its complexities and nuances. Second language learners need ongoing opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their new language, in order to maintain fluency in it. (education)

Second Language acquisition by David Nunan: 

                                     

     Second Language acquisition is all about how native learners accept the second and foreign language. David Nunan has done a research in this field and he found that researchers are interested in both process as well as product. Product is the language which is used by learners and process is the learning process.

     Second language acquisition emerged from comparative studies of similarity and differences between languages. These studies conducted in the brief that a learner’s first language (L1) has an important influence on the acquisition of a second language (L2), which is resulting in the contrastive analysis (CA).  

Contrastive analysis includes two terms:

1.    Negative transfer: when the rules of L_­1 and L₂ are not similar, it is negative transfer between speaker and listener.

2.     Positive transfer: when the rules of L_­1 and L₂ are similar, it is positive transfer between speaker and listener.

            Contrastive analysis hypothesis was in harmony with the prevailing psychological theory of the behaviorism. Behaviorism believes that learning was a process of habit formation. Linguistic habits acquired by individuals as their L1 emerged would have a marked influence on their L2 acquisition. Constructivist position emerged at about the same time as cognitive psychologist began to challenge behaviorism. 

Corder’s investigation of learners SLA (1967):

     Corder made a strong case for the investigation of learner’s, errors as a way of obtaining insight into the process and strategies underlying SLA. Error was not as evidence of pathology on the part of learners, but as a normal and healthy part of the learning process.  

      The systematic study of learner’s error revealed interesting insight into SLA process. 

1.     Learners made errors that were not predicted by the CA hypothesis.

2.     The error that learners made was systematic, rather than random.

3.     Learners appeared to move through a serious of stages as they developed competence in the target language.

Brown’s longitudinal case (1973)

         Brown has done a research work upon three children who were having English as a L₁. He found fourteen (14) grammatical structures, and their way of learning and using English was similar to their parents. As per Brown the way of learning English language is natural.

Product Oriented research:

          During the early 1970s a series of empirical investigations into learner were carried out which become known as the ‘morpheme order’ studies. Their principal aim was to determine whether there is a ‘natural’ sequence in the order in which L2 learners acquire the grammar of the target language. Dulay and Burt have established a new term “morpheme order”. This means minimum meaningful language units. Dulay and Burt found that listening is the first way of learning language. They have done their research upon the children from different L₁ backgrounds (Spanish and Chinese), and as a result they found that the morpheme they have used were similar. The morpheme order studies indicated a predetermined order of acquisition for certain grammatical morphemes. Subsequent research also showed that order could not be changed by instruction. 

        In the 1980s Stephen Krashen was the best known figure in the SLA field. He formulated a controversial hypothesis to explain the disparity between the order in which grammatical items were taught and the order in which they were acquired. As per him there are two mental process operating SLA: conscious learning and subconscious learning. 

Conscious learning: it focuses upon grammatical rules. It helps learners to identify the violation of rules.

Subconscious learning: it facilitating the acquisition of grammatical rules at a subconscious level.

      According to Krashen, when using the language to communicate meaning, the learner must draw on subconscious knowledge. The suggestion of conscious and subconscious process functioning in language development was not new or radical; however, Krashen’s assertion that these process were totally separate. Krashen went on to argue that the basic mechanism underlying language acquisition was comprehension. According to his “comprehensible input hypothesis” when a student understands a message in the language containing a structure, his or her current level of competence advances by one step, and that structure is acquired. 

Krashen's Theory of Second Language Acquisition

            Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:

1.   The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: The Acquisition-Learning distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.

2.     The Monitor hypothesis: The Monitor hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and defines the influence of the latter on the former.

3.     The Natural Order hypothesis: The Natural Order hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested that the acquisition of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable.

4.     The Input hypothesis: The Input hypothesis is Krashen's attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language – how second language acquisition takes place.

5.     The Affective Filter hypothesis: It embodies Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but non-causal, role in second language acquisition.

Process oriented research:

            The term ‘modified interaction’ refers to instance during an interaction when the speaker alters the form in which language is encoded to make it more comprehensible. This research into modified interaction was strongly influenced by Krashen’s hypothesis that comprehensible input was a necessary and sufficient condition for SLA. Long has also done research upon tasks of SLA, he has given three stages which are connected with each other.

1.     Conversational adjustment

2.     Comprehensible input

3.    Acquisition 

Conclusion:

          At the concluding part I wont to say that SLA as a discipline in CA, error analysis and inter language development. Nunan examine research into SLA in both naturalistic and instructional settings, considering both process and product oriented study.  

Works Cited

Association, Averican Speech-Language-Hearing. what is second languade acquisition. n.d.

education, Portland. five types SLA. n.d.

Singhal, Vandana. What is second laguage acquisition? Ed. Linda M. Rhinehart Neas. 2012.

 

         

          

Paper no - 11 The Postcolonial Literature

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                                     Name: Mital M. Raval      

                                            Roll No: 19

                                           M.A. SEM: 3

                                 Batch Year: 2016 – 2018

                           Enrollment No: 2069108420170026

                          Email Id: ravalmital5292@gmail.com

                       Paper Name: The Postcolonial Literature

              Assignment Topic: A Tempest as Postcolonial text.

                                 Submitted to: Dr. Dilip Barad

                                           Smt. S. b. Gardi

                                       Department of English

                                    M .k. Bhavnagar University

About author:

                    

            

      Aime cesaire’s full name was Aimé Fernand David Césaire. He was born in 26^th June 1913 and died in 17^th April 2008. He was Francophone and French poet, author and politician from Martinique. He was "one of the founders of the negritude movement in Francophone literature". He wrote such works as Une Tempete (A Tempest), a response to Shakespeare's play The Tempest from a postcolonial perspective. (Wikipedia)

About Play:

                                      

                        

   A Tempest play is by Amie Cesaire. It was originally written in 1969 in French with the title ‘Une Tempete’ and then it was translated in to English by Richard Miller in 1985 with title of ‘A tempest’. It is an adaptation of Shakespeare's ‘The Tempest’ from a postcolonial perspective. Plot of A Tempest is same like ‘The Tempest’ by Shakespeare but Cesaire in this play made some significant changes because he wont to show this play with the perspective of post colonialism. Here character of Caliban is black slave and Arial is mulatto slave. He added one character Eshu, A God of devil, which is not in The Tempest by Shakespeare. A Tempest focuses on the plight of Ariel and Caliban—the never-ending quest to gain freedom from Prospero and his rule over the island.

What is Post colonialism?

                A Postcolonialism or postcolonial study is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks about the human consequences of external control and economic exploitation of native people and their lands. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought, postcolonial studies analyze the politics of knowledge by examining the functional relations of social and political power that sustain colonialism and neocolonialism—the imperial regime's depictions of the colonizer and of the colonized. (Wikipedia, postcolonialism)

Notable writer of postcolonial theorist:

·        Edward said

·        Frantz Fanon

·        Gayatri Spivak

·        Homi k Bhabah

·        Aime Cesaire

·        Dipesh Chakrabarty   etc….

A Tempest as postcolonial text: 

       A Tempest is postcolonial revision of ‘The tempest’ by Shakespeare. The cast of character are same like original play The Tempest by Shakespeare but in this play Aime Cesaire change some character to show postcolonial reading of the text. In which Caliban become black slave and Ariel become mulatto slave. Here Caliban is at the center rather than Prospero. Caliban become hero of the text and Prospero is become villain. Here Prospero somewhere become ant natural. 

      Cesaire conveys his stance against colonialism mainly through the relationship and speeches between Caliban and Prospero, that is, Caliban’s response to Pospero’s acts indicates Cesaire’s anti-colonialist approach. Although Prospero is the master of Caliban, who is a black slave, Caliban no more accepts his minor status and always opposes Prospero’s idea that he is superior to Caliban.

       Prospero’s attitudes towards Caliban prove the Western powers’ way of thinking and behaving against the black colonized. Prospero claims that he is right in ordering and subduing Caliban, thus reducing Caliban to the position of being an animal. For example, he calls Caliban“ ugly ape “, “ a savage “, “ a dumb animal “; therefore, Prospero tries to impose his superiority upon Caliban, who is supposed by Prospero to have to obey his orders and submit what Prospero says without any complaint and protest (Cesaire, 1991: 11). According to Prospero, Caliban’s only function and duty in this world is to serve the needs and orders of Prospero all the time. Caliban has no value except for running errands. In other words, Prospero tries to place Caliban into the position and identity which he determines like the colonial powers. Prospero threatens to punish Caliban if he does not comply with the orders of Prospero. For Prospero, Caliban is nothing without him as he brought civilization to Caliban and educated him whom he considers an ignorant animal. If Caliban accepts his status as a servant and does not protest, he may make progress and exceed his bestial position. Since Caliban is always identified with inferior things by Prospero, Prospero also accuses Caliban of raping his daughter, which is denied by Caliban. Caliban does not have any value and positive quality for Prospero. He always has to choose either to serve Prospero or to be punished severely.

          In spite of being a black servant in the hands of Europeans, Caliban is never satisfied with his position, being in constant protest against the approach and attitudes of Prospero. Caliban trusts himself throughout the play and never gets into any inferiority complex even when he is threatened and oppressed by Prospero. He objects Prospero’s division of the world into the civilized and the savage one. He realizes that Prospero did not bring civilization and education to Caliban, so these are only lies and deception of Prospero in order to justify his oppression since Prospero only regarded himself by exploiting Caliban, using him for his own interests and putting aside Caliban’s values.

     According to Caliban, Prospero wants to shape his identity by subordinating and threatening him with punishment. Caliban rejects the identity and status given him by Prospero as a servant and sub-human. Instead of being called “ Caliban “, he wants to give a name to himself which is “ X “, which proves his rebellious rejection of the authority and what Prospero tries to impose upon him. This thing we know from dialogues of Caliban and Prospero.

CALIBAN: Well, because Caliban isn't my name 'It's as simple as that.

  

PROSPERO: Oh, I suppose it's mine!

CALIBAN: It's the name given me by your hatred' and every time it's spoken it's an insult'

PROSPERO: My, aren't we getting sensitive! All right, suggest something else"' I've. got to call you something. What will it be? Cannibal would suit you.

CALIBAN: Call me X. That would be best. Like a man without name. (A. Césaire)

        Thus, we can say that he wants to name himself freely and does not want to be reduced into any classification claimed by Prospero. For Caliban, Prospero does not have any right and justifiable reason for punishing and scorning him because Prospero is not a superior human being, but a liar, destroyer and oppressor. Caliban implies the idea that he has his own identity, values and language when he says “Uhuru”! Instead of hello.

CALIBAN: Uhuru!

PROSPERO: What did you say?

CALIBAN: I said, Uhuru

PROSPERO: Mumbling your native language again! I've already told you, I don't like it' You could be polite' at least; a simple “hello” wouldn’t kill you.  (Césaire)

         Here Uhuru is word of freedom. It was in native language of Caliban which Prospero never understand that’s way he told to Caliban that he never speak in native language. He tends to indicate the fact that he is not ashamed of his language or culture, so his own values cannot be denied and contempted by anyone. They cannot be changed, removed or reduced to anything that is secondary and marginal. Caliban constantly argues with Prospero in order to prove his precious existence and gain his freedom, and he is fed up with serving Prospero. He shows his determination in trying to gain his freedom by saying “And I know one day my bare fist, just that, will be enough to crush your world!”.  

        Caliban’s acts and rebellious nature remind us of Cesaire’s views that are based on the objection that there can never be a hierarchical rank between societies, especially between the colonized and the colonizers. As Cesaire argued the idea that the Africans must not regard themselves as the secondary and minor human beings, Caliban insists on claiming that Prospero cannot prove his superiority. Like Cesaire, Caliban does not forget his own culture, language and existence, referring to them without any embarrassment. This is the philosophy of Cesaire that the black colonized have to recognize their own achievements, values and civilization. They need to return to their way of living and culture that are not so dishonorable as the Europeans tried to make them accept. Caliban is aware of the wicked intention of Prospero and gains his consciousness of a real human being with his freedom who must not be used as a slave by any society. (KARAGÖZ)

Conclusion:

         At concluding part I won’t to say that here in this play character of Caliban is very rebellious rather than Prospero. He argues with Prospero in any debate which was not in Shakespeare’s play ‘The tempest’. Aime Cesaire here won’t to show Postcolonialism that’s way he show Caliban as rebellious character. So we can say that A Tempest is postcolonial play. ‘A Tempest’ is the Caliban represents the more Black Nationalist ideas. He wants his ideas, his culture and his identity back. The emergence of postcolonial rebel is given flame in the work.   

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Works Cited

Césaire, Aime. A Tempest. Trans. Richard Miller. Editions du seuil, n.d.

Césaire, Aimé. A Tempest. Trans. Richard Miller. Editions du seui, 1969.

KARAGÖZ, Cengiz. A POSTCOLONIAL READING OF AIME CESAIRE’S PLAYS. Vol. 7. n.d.

Wikipedia. Aime Cesaire. 27 July 2017. 2017.

—. postcolonialism. 2017.