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Paper no - 12 English Language Teaching
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Name: Mital M. Raval
Roll No: 19
M.A. SEM: 3
Batch Year: 2016 – 2018
Enrollment No: 2069108420170026
Email Id: ravalmital5292@gmail.com
Paper Name: English language teaching - 1
Assignment Topic: Second Language Acquisition.
Submitted to: Dr. Dilip Barad
Smt. S. b. Gardi
Department of English
M .k. Bhavnagar
University
Introduction:
The term “Second language Acquisition” (SLA)
refers to the processes through which someone acquires one or more second or
foreign languages. SLA researchers look at acquisition in naturalistic contexts
and in classroom settings. Researchers are interested in both product and
process. The product means the language used by learners at different stages in
the acquisition process. Trace the
development of SLA from its origins in contrastive analysis. This is followed
by a selective review of research, focusing on product-oriented studies of
stages that learner pass through as they acquire another language, as well as
investigations in to the processes underlying acquisition. The practical
implications of research are then discussed, followed by a review of current
and future trends and direction.
What is
second Language Acquisition?
·
Second language acquisition or SLA is the process of
learning other languages in addition to the native language. For instance, a
child who speaks Hindi as the mother tongue starts learning English when he
starts going to school. English is learned by the process of second language
acquisition. In fact, a young child can learn a second language faster than an
adult can learn the same language. (Singhal)
·
Second language acquisition is learning a second
language after a first language is already established. Many times this happens
when a child who speaks a language other than English goes to school for the
first time. Children have an easier time learning a second language, but anyone
can do it at any age. It takes a lot of practice.
Five stages
of second language acquisition:
Proponents of second language acquisition theories, including
Oliveri and Judie Haynes, another ESL teacher with 28 years of experience,
identify five distinct stages of second language acquisition as originally
espoused by linguist Stephen Krashen. These include the following:
1.
Silent/receptive
This stage may last from several hours to several months,
depending on the individual learner. During this time, new language learners
typically spend time learning vocabulary and practice pronouncing new words.
While they may engage in self-talk, they don’t normally speak the language with
any fluency or real understanding.
This stage is controversial among language educators. Ana
Lomba disagrees that second language learners are totally silent while they are
in this first learning stage. Instead, Lomba states that “speech is fundamental in language acquisition” and learners excel
in language acquisition when they apply what they learn as they learn it.
2. Early
production
This stage may last about six months, during which language
learners typically acquire an understanding of up to 1,000 words. They may also
learn to speak some words and begin forming short phrases, even though they may
not be grammatically correct.
3. Speech
emergence
By this stage, learners typically acquire a vocabulary of up
to 3,000 words, and learn to communicate by putting the words in short phrases,
sentences, and questions. Again, they may not be grammatically correct, but
this is an important stage during which learners gain greater comprehension and
begin reading and writing in their second language.
4.
Intermediate fluency
At this stage, which may last for a year or more after speech
emergence, learners typically have a vocabulary of as many as 6,000 words. They
usually acquire the ability to communicate in writing and speech using more
complex sentences. This crucial stage is also when learners begin actually
thinking in their second language, which helps them gain more proficiency in
speaking it.
5.
Continued language development/advanced fluency
It takes most learners at least two years to reach this
stage, and then up to 10 years to achieve full mastery of the second language
in all its complexities and nuances. Second language learners need ongoing
opportunities to engage in discussions and express themselves in their new
language, in order to maintain fluency in it. (education)
Second Language acquisition by David Nunan:
Second
Language acquisition is all about how native learners accept the second and
foreign language. David Nunan has done a research in this field and he found
that researchers are interested in both process as well as product. Product is
the language which is used by learners and process is the learning process.
Second language
acquisition emerged from comparative studies of similarity and differences
between languages. These studies conducted in the brief that a learner’s first
language (L1) has an important influence on the acquisition of a second
language (L2), which is resulting in the contrastive analysis (CA).
Contrastive
analysis includes two terms:
1.
Negative
transfer: when the rules of L1 and
L2 are not similar, it is negative transfer between speaker and
listener.
2. Positive transfer: when the rules of L1 and L2 are similar, it is
positive transfer between speaker and listener.
Contrastive analysis hypothesis was
in harmony with the prevailing psychological theory of the behaviorism.
Behaviorism believes that learning was a process of habit formation. Linguistic habits acquired by
individuals as their L1 emerged would have a marked influence on their L2
acquisition. Constructivist position emerged at about the same time as
cognitive psychologist began to challenge behaviorism.
Corder’s
investigation of learners SLA (1967):
Corder made a strong case for the
investigation of learner’s, errors as a way of obtaining insight into the
process and strategies underlying SLA. Error was not as evidence of pathology
on the part of learners, but as a normal and healthy part of the learning
process.
The systematic study of learner’s error
revealed interesting insight into SLA process.
1. Learners
made errors that were not predicted by the CA hypothesis.
2. The error
that learners made was systematic, rather than random.
3. Learners
appeared to move through a serious of stages as they developed competence in
the target language.
Brown’s
longitudinal case (1973)
Brown has done a research work upon three children who were having
English as a L1. He found fourteen (14) grammatical structures, and
their way of learning and using English was similar to their parents. As per
Brown the way of learning English language is natural.
Product
Oriented research:
During the early 1970s a
series of empirical investigations into learner were carried out which become
known as the ‘morpheme order’ studies. Their principal aim was to determine
whether there is a ‘natural’ sequence in the order in which L2 learners acquire
the grammar of the target language. Dulay
and Burt have established a new
term “morpheme order”. This means
minimum meaningful language units. Dulay and Burt found that listening is the
first way of learning language. They have done their research upon the children
from different L1 backgrounds (Spanish and Chinese), and as a result
they found that the morpheme they have used were similar. The morpheme order
studies indicated a predetermined order of acquisition for certain grammatical
morphemes. Subsequent research also showed that order could not be changed by
instruction.
In the 1980s Stephen Krashen was the best known
figure in the SLA field. He formulated a controversial
hypothesis to explain the disparity between the order in which grammatical
items were taught and the order in which they were acquired. As per him there
are two mental process operating SLA: conscious learning and subconscious
learning.
Conscious
learning: it focuses upon grammatical rules. It helps learners to
identify the violation of rules.
Subconscious
learning:
it facilitating the acquisition of
grammatical rules at a subconscious level.
According to Krashen, when
using the language to communicate meaning, the learner must draw on
subconscious knowledge. The suggestion of conscious and subconscious process
functioning in language development was not new or radical; however, Krashen’s
assertion that these process were totally separate. Krashen went on to argue
that the basic mechanism underlying language acquisition was comprehension.
According to his “comprehensible input
hypothesis” when a student understands a message in the language containing
a structure, his or her current level of competence advances by one step, and
that structure is acquired.
Krashen's
Theory of Second Language Acquisition
Krashen's
theory of second language acquisition consists of five main hypotheses:
1. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis: The Acquisition-Learning
distinction is the most fundamental of all the hypotheses in Krashen's theory
and the most widely known among linguists and language practitioners.
2.
The Monitor
hypothesis: The Monitor
hypothesis explains the relationship between acquisition and learning and
defines the influence of the latter on the former.
3.
The Natural
Order hypothesis: The Natural Order
hypothesis is based on research findings which suggested that the acquisition
of grammatical structures follows a 'natural order' which is predictable.
4. The Input hypothesis: The Input hypothesis is Krashen's
attempt to explain how the learner acquires a second language – how second language
acquisition takes place.
5. The Affective Filter hypothesis: It embodies
Krashen's view that a number of 'affective variables' play a facilitative, but
non-causal, role in second language acquisition.
Process oriented research:
The term ‘modified interaction’ refers to instance during an interaction
when the speaker alters the form in which language is encoded to make it more
comprehensible. This research into modified interaction was strongly influenced
by Krashen’s hypothesis that comprehensible input was a necessary and
sufficient condition for SLA. Long has also
done research upon tasks of SLA, he has given three stages which are connected
with each other.
1.
Conversational
adjustment
2.
Comprehensible
input
3.
Acquisition
Conclusion:
At
the concluding part I wont to say that SLA as a discipline in CA, error analysis
and inter language development. Nunan examine research into SLA in both
naturalistic and instructional settings, considering both process and product
oriented study.
Works Cited
Association, Averican Speech-Language-Hearing. what
is second languade acquisition. n.d.
education, Portland. five
types SLA. n.d.
Singhal, Vandana. What
is second laguage acquisition? Ed. Linda M. Rhinehart Neas. 2012.
Paper no - 11 The Postcolonial Literature
To evaluate my assignment click here.
Name: Mital M. Raval
Roll No: 19
M.A. SEM: 3
Batch Year: 2016 – 2018
Enrollment No: 2069108420170026
Email Id: ravalmital5292@gmail.com
Paper Name: The Postcolonial Literature
Assignment Topic: A Tempest as Postcolonial
text.
Submitted to: Dr. Dilip Barad
Smt. S. b. Gardi
Department of English
M .k. Bhavnagar
University
About author:
Aime cesaire’s full name was
Aimé Fernand David Césaire. He
was born in 26th June 1913 and died in 17th
April 2008. He was Francophone and French poet, author and
politician from Martinique. He was "one of the founders of the negritude movement in Francophone
literature". He wrote such works as Une Tempete (A Tempest), a response to
Shakespeare's play The Tempest from a postcolonial perspective. (Wikipedia)
About Play:
A Tempest play is by Amie
Cesaire. It was
originally written in 1969 in French with the title ‘Une Tempete’ and then it
was translated in to English by Richard Miller in 1985 with title of ‘A tempest’.
It is an adaptation of Shakespeare's ‘The Tempest’ from a postcolonial perspective. Plot of A Tempest is same like ‘The
Tempest’ by Shakespeare but Cesaire in this play made some significant changes
because he wont to show this play with the perspective of post colonialism.
Here character of Caliban is black slave and Arial is mulatto slave. He added
one character Eshu, A God of devil, which is not in The Tempest by Shakespeare.
A Tempest focuses on the plight of
Ariel and Caliban—the never-ending quest to gain freedom from Prospero and his
rule over the island.
What is Post
colonialism?
A Postcolonialism or postcolonial study
is an academic discipline that analyzes, explains, and responds
to the cultural legacy of colonialism and imperialism. Postcolonialism speaks
about the human consequences of external control and economic exploitation of
native people and their lands. Drawing from postmodern schools of thought,
postcolonial studies analyze the politics of knowledge by examining the
functional relations of social and political power that sustain colonialism and
neocolonialism—the imperial regime's depictions of the colonizer and of the
colonized. (Wikipedia, postcolonialism)
Notable writer of postcolonial theorist:
·
Edward said
·
Frantz Fanon
·
Gayatri Spivak
·
Homi k Bhabah
·
Aime Cesaire
·
Dipesh Chakrabarty
etc….
A Tempest
as postcolonial text:
Cesaire
conveys his stance against colonialism mainly through the relationship and
speeches between Caliban and Prospero, that is, Caliban’s response to Pospero’s
acts indicates Cesaire’s anti-colonialist approach. Although Prospero is the master
of Caliban, who is a black slave, Caliban no more accepts his minor status and
always opposes Prospero’s idea that he is superior to Caliban.
Prospero’s attitudes towards Caliban prove
the Western powers’ way of thinking and behaving against the black colonized.
Prospero claims that he is right in ordering and subduing Caliban, thus
reducing Caliban to the position of being an animal. For example, he calls
Caliban“ ugly ape “, “ a savage “, “ a
dumb animal “; therefore, Prospero tries to impose his superiority upon
Caliban, who is supposed by Prospero to have to obey his orders and submit what
Prospero says without any complaint and protest (Cesaire, 1991: 11). According
to Prospero, Caliban’s only function and duty in this world is to serve the needs
and orders of Prospero all the time. Caliban has no value except for running
errands. In other words, Prospero tries to place Caliban into the position and
identity which he determines like the colonial powers. Prospero threatens to
punish Caliban if he does not comply with the orders of Prospero. For Prospero,
Caliban is nothing without him as he brought civilization to Caliban and
educated him whom he considers an ignorant animal. If Caliban accepts his
status as a servant and does not protest, he may make progress and exceed his
bestial position. Since Caliban is always identified with inferior things by
Prospero, Prospero also accuses Caliban of raping his daughter, which is denied
by Caliban. Caliban does not have any value and positive quality for Prospero.
He always has to choose either to serve Prospero or to be punished severely.
In spite of
being a black servant in the hands of Europeans, Caliban is never satisfied
with his position, being in constant protest against the approach and attitudes
of Prospero. Caliban trusts himself throughout the play and never gets into any
inferiority complex even when he is threatened and oppressed by Prospero. He
objects Prospero’s division of the world into the civilized and the savage one.
He realizes that Prospero did not bring civilization and education to Caliban,
so these are only lies and deception of Prospero in order to justify his oppression
since Prospero only regarded himself by exploiting Caliban, using him for his
own interests and putting aside Caliban’s values.
According to Caliban, Prospero wants to shape
his identity by subordinating and threatening him with punishment. Caliban
rejects the identity and status given him by Prospero as a servant and
sub-human. Instead of being called “ Caliban “, he wants to give a name to
himself which is “ X “, which proves his rebellious rejection of the authority
and what Prospero tries to impose upon him. This thing we know from dialogues
of Caliban and Prospero.
CALIBAN: Well, because Caliban
isn't my name 'It's as simple as that.
PROSPERO: Oh, I suppose it's
mine!
CALIBAN: It's the name given me by your hatred' and every time it's spoken it's an insult'
PROSPERO: My, aren't we getting sensitive!
All right,
suggest something else"' I've. got to call
you something. What will it be? Cannibal would suit you.
CALIBAN: Call
me X. That would be best. Like a man without name. (A.
Césaire)
Thus, we can
say that he wants to name himself freely and does not want to be reduced into
any classification claimed by Prospero. For Caliban, Prospero does not have any
right and justifiable reason for punishing and scorning him because Prospero is
not a superior human being, but a liar, destroyer and oppressor. Caliban
implies the idea that he has his own identity, values and language when he says
“Uhuru”! Instead of hello.
CALIBAN: Uhuru!
PROSPERO: What did you say?
CALIBAN: I said, Uhuru
PROSPERO: Mumbling your native
language again! I've already told you, I don't
like it' You could be polite' at least; a simple “hello” wouldn’t kill you. (Césaire)
Here Uhuru is
word of freedom. It was in native language of Caliban which Prospero never
understand that’s way he told to Caliban that he never speak in native
language. He tends to indicate the fact that he is not ashamed of his language
or culture, so his own values cannot be denied and contempted by anyone. They
cannot be changed, removed or reduced to anything that is secondary and marginal.
Caliban constantly argues with Prospero in order to prove his precious
existence and gain his freedom, and he is fed up with serving Prospero. He shows
his determination in trying to gain his freedom by saying “And I know one day
my bare fist, just that, will be enough to crush your world!”.
Caliban’s
acts and rebellious nature remind us of Cesaire’s views that are based on the objection
that there can never be a hierarchical rank between societies, especially
between the colonized and the colonizers. As Cesaire argued the idea that the
Africans must not regard themselves as the secondary and minor human beings,
Caliban insists on claiming that Prospero cannot prove his superiority. Like
Cesaire, Caliban does not forget his own culture, language and existence,
referring to them without any embarrassment. This is the philosophy of Cesaire
that the black colonized have to recognize their own achievements, values and civilization.
They need to return to their way of living and culture that are not so
dishonorable as the Europeans tried to make them accept. Caliban is aware of the
wicked intention of Prospero and gains his consciousness of a real human being
with his freedom who must not be used as a slave by any society. (KARAGÖZ)
Conclusion:
At concluding part I won’t to say
that here in this play character of Caliban is very rebellious rather than
Prospero. He argues with Prospero in any debate which was not in Shakespeare’s
play ‘The tempest’. Aime Cesaire here won’t to show Postcolonialism that’s way
he show Caliban as rebellious character. So we can say that A Tempest is
postcolonial play. ‘A Tempest’ is the Caliban
represents the more Black Nationalist ideas. He wants his ideas, his culture
and his identity back. The emergence of postcolonial rebel is given flame in
the work.
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Works Cited
Césaire, Aime. A Tempest. Trans. Richard
Miller. Editions du seuil, n.d.
Césaire, Aimé. A
Tempest. Trans. Richard Miller. Editions du seui, 1969.
KARAGÖZ, Cengiz. A
POSTCOLONIAL READING OF AIME CESAIRE’S PLAYS. Vol. 7. n.d.
Wikipedia. Aime
Cesaire. 27 July 2017. 2017.
—. postcolonialism.
2017.
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